Water Governance in India: From Infrastructure to Water Security

Context

The 9th India International Water Week 2026 in New Delhi, themed “Climate Resilient Water Management,” highlighted the need for integrated water governance. The Gujarat water-governance model (2001–2014) also offers lessons on institutional reform, financing and community participation for water security.

India’s Water Situation

1. High Pressure on Resources: India has 18% of the global population but only about 4% of global freshwater resources.
2. Uneven Availability: India receives around 4,000 BCM of annual precipitation, but nearly 75% falls during June–September, causing strong seasonal variation. Water is also unevenly distributed, with a large share concentrated in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin.
3. Declining Per-Capita Availability: Water availability fell from 5,177 m³ (1951) to 1,486 m³ (2021) and is projected to reach 1,367 m³ by 2031, below the 1,700 m³ water-stress threshold.
4. High Agricultural Demand: Agriculture accounts for around 80% of water use, making efficient irrigation crucial.
5. Groundwater Dependence: India is the world’s largest groundwater user; groundwater supports over 60% of irrigated agriculture and about 85% of rural drinking-water supply.

Institutional and Constitutional Framework

1. State List — Entry 17: Water is primarily a State subject, covering water supply, irrigation, canals, drainage and related matters, subject to Entry 56 of the Union List.
2. Union List — Entry 56: Provides for Union regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys, subject to the constitutional provision.
3. Article 262: Enables Parliament to provide for the adjudication of inter-State river-water disputes.
4. Local Governance: The 11th and 12th Schedules assign water-related functions to Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies, respectively.
5. Ministry of Jal Shakti: Created in 2019 by merging the Ministries of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation and Drinking Water and Sanitation.
6. Central Water Commission (CWC): Provides technical expertise on surface-water resources.
7. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): Assesses and monitors groundwater resources.
8. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA): Regulates groundwater extraction under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Top of FormBottom of Form

Key Challenges

1. Spatial and Seasonal Imbalance: Uneven rainfall and monsoon concentration cause floods in some regions and water scarcity in others.
2. Groundwater Depletion: Excessive extraction for irrigation, subsidised electricity and weak regulation accelerate groundwater decline. The Indian Easements Act, 1882 historically linked groundwater access to land ownership.
3. Fragmented Governance: Overlapping responsibilities of the Union, States and local bodies create coordination gaps in water management.
4. Infrastructure–Service Gap: Providing household tap connections under the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) does not automatically ensure a regular, adequate and safe water supply.
5. Weak Water Data: Fragmented information on rainfall, river flows, groundwater, water quality and demand limits integrated planning and evidence-based decisions.
6. Low Water-Use Efficiency: Flood irrigation, water-intensive crops and subsidised electricity encourage wastage and excessive groundwater extraction.
7. Pollution and Ecological Stress: Industrial and domestic pollution degrade water quality, while inadequate environmental flows (e-flows) threaten river ecosystems.
8. Inter-State and Transboundary Disputes: Competing water demands create conflicts over rivers such as the Cauvery, Indus and Brahmaputra.

Government Initiatives

1. National Water Policy, 2012: Promotes water conservation and efficient use, while prioritising basic needs.
2. National Hydrology Project: Strengthens hydrological data collection and monitoring.
3. National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM): Maps aquifers for scientific groundwater management.
4. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Expands rural household tap-water access and aims to ensure reliable, safe supply.
5. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0: Improves urban water supply, sewerage, and water-body rejuvenation.
6. Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Promotes water conservation, especially in water-stressed areas.
7. Catch the Rain: Encourages rainwater harvesting and local water conservation.
8. Jal Sanchay Jan Bhagidari: Promotes community-led water conservation and groundwater recharge.

Gujarat Model and Community-Based Water Governance

Gujarat’s experience (2001–2014) demonstrates how infrastructure, institutional reforms and community participation can work together to improve water security.

1. Political Leadership: Chintan Shivirs facilitated stakeholder consultation and prioritised water management.
2. Water Infrastructure: A state-wide water grid supplied water to water-stressed regions, while check dams supported storage and groundwater recharge.
3. Decentralised Governance: Pani Samitis involved communities in planning, operation and maintenance of local water systems.
4. Cost Sharing: Government and communities shared costs and responsibilities, strengthening local ownership.
5. Demand Management: The Jyotigram Yojana (2003) separated agricultural and village electricity feeders to improve electricity supply management for irrigation and households.
6. Four-P Framework: Effective water governance requires Political Leadership, Public and Private Financing, Partnerships, and People’s Participation.

Other Community-Based Examples

1. Maharashtra: Hiware Bazar and Ralegan Siddhi demonstrate community-led watershed management.
2. Rajasthan: Traditional johads promoted by Rajendra Singh support water conservation in Alwar.
3. Telangana: Mission Kakatiya focuses on restoring irrigation tanks.
4. Tamil Nadu: Mandatory rainwater harvesting promotes groundwater recharge.

Way Forward

1. Integrated Water Governance: Coordinate the Central Water Commission (CWC), Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA), States and local bodies to manage surface water and groundwater together.
2. Strengthen Local Participation: Empower Pani Samitis and involve communities in water conservation, planning and maintenance.
3. Improve Service Delivery: Under the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), monitor tap connections alongside supply regularity, adequacy, water quality and functionality.
4. Promote Efficient Water Use: Expand micro-irrigation, align crop choices with local water availability and reuse treated wastewater for industrial and other non-potable purposes.
5. Build Climate-Resilient Planning: Integrate water data to support groundwater recharge, flood and drought management, and ecosystem protection.

FAQs

Q1. What is Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)?
Ans: IWRM is an approach that coordinates the management of surface water, groundwater, land and related resources across sectors and institutions.

Q2. What are the 4 Ps of water governance?
Ans: They are Political Leadership, Public and Private Financing, Partnerships and People’s Participation.

Q3. What is environmental flow or e-flow?
Ans: E-flow is the quantity, timing and quality of river flow required to maintain aquatic ecosystems and their ecological functions.