Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the process by which microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, evolve to resist the effects of medications previously used to cure infections caused by them. This makes standard treatments ineffective, persistent infections, and the spread of infection to others becomes more likely. 

AMR is a natural biological phenomenon that is in accordance with the Darwin’s theory of Natural these has been accelerated by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials by humans .

 Anthropogenic Factors Responsible for Antimicrobial Resistance 

Anthropogenic (human-induced) factors play a critical role in the rise and spread of AMR across human health, animal health, and the environment . Key factors include: 

• Inappropriate Use in Human Medicine: A major driver is the unnecessary prescription of antibiotics for viral infections (like the common cold or flu) against which they are ineffective. Incomplete courses of antibiotics also contribute, as this fails to eliminate all pathogens, allowing the most resistant ones to survive and multiply.
• Use in Agriculture and Aquaculture: Antibiotics (Colistin ,   nitrofurans) are widely used in livestock and fish farming, not only to treat diseases but also to promote growth and prevent illnesses in crowded conditions. And then antibiotic-resistant bacteria can then be transmitted to humans through the food chain, direct contact, or the environment.
• Poor Infection Control and Sanitation: Inadequate hygiene practices in hospitals, clinics, and communities facilitate the rapid spread of resistant pathogens from person to person. Lack of access to clean water and sanitation systems in many parts of the world exacerbates this issue.
• Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Waste: The improper disposal of antimicrobial waste from manufacturing plants releases active drugs into the environment, particularly water sources. This exposes environmental bacteria to sub-lethal doses of antimicrobials, fostering the development and spread of resistance genes.
• Lack of New Drug Development: Economic and scientific challenges have led to a decline in the discovery and development of new antibiotics. This results in fewer tools available to combat emerging resistant strains, making existing resistance a more critical problem

 Addressing AMR requires a global, coordinated approach, often referred to as a “One Health” approach, which recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.